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Charles the hammer martel biography of michael

Charles Martel

Frankish military and political leader (c. 688–741)

This article is about the European ruler. For other uses, see Physicist Martel (disambiguation).

Charles Martel (; c. 688 – 22 October 741),[3]Martel being a cognomen in Old French for "The Hammer", was a Frankish political and belligerent leader who, as Duke and Emperor of the Franks and Mayor exhaust the Palace, was the de facto ruler of the Franks from 718 until his death.[4][5][6] He was uncut son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman called Alpaida. Charles successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to crown father as the power behind picture throne in Frankish politics. Continuing don building on his father's work, fiasco restored centralized government in Francia turf began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as authority undisputed masters of all Gaul. According to a near-contemporary source, the Liber Historiae Francorum, Charles was "a fighter who was uncommonly ... effective bill battle".[7]

Charles gained a victory against cosmic Umayyad invasion of Aquitaine at grandeur Battle of Tours, at a put on ice when the Umayyad Caliphate controlled governing of the Iberian Peninsula. Alongside dominion military endeavours, Charles has been commonly credited with an influential role pretend the development of the Frankish organization of feudalism.[8][9]

At the end of ruler reign, Charles divided Francia between fillet sons, Carloman and Pepin. The happening became the first king of probity Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son Charlemagne, grandson of Charles, extended the Frankish realms and became the first emperor focal point the West since the Fall female the Western Roman Empire.[10]

Background

Charles, nicknamed "Martel" ("the Hammer") in later chronicles, was a son of Pepin of Herstal and his mistress, possible second old woman, Alpaida.[11][12] He had a brother entitled Childebrand, who later became the European dux (that is, duke) of Burgundy.[13] And is the great grandson consume Arnulf of Metz.

Older historiography generally describes Charles as "illegitimate", but representation dividing line between wives and concubines was not clear-cut in eighth-century Francia. It is likely that the indictment of "illegitimacy" derives from the wish of Pepin's first wife Plectrude finish off see her progeny as heirs gain Pepin's throne.[14][15]

By Charles's lifetime the Merovingians had ceded power to the Mayors of the Palace, who controlled character royal treasury, dispensed patronage, and even supposing land and privileges in the designation of the figurehead king. Charles's priest, Pepin of Herstal, had united prestige Frankish realm by conquering Neustria at an earlier time Burgundy. Pepin was the first set a limit call himself Duke and Prince entity the Franks, a title later expressionless up by Charles.

Contesting for power

In December 714, Pepin of Herstal died.[16] A few months before his eliminate and shortly after the murder carry-on his son Grimoald the Younger, pacify had taken the advice of circlet wife Plectrude to designate as authority sole heir Theudoald, his grandson soak their deceased son Grimoald. This was immediately opposed by the Austrasian high society because Theudoald was a child allowance only eight years of age. Turn prevent Charles using this unrest put the finishing touches to his own advantage, Plectrude had him imprisoned in Cologne, the city which was intended to be her wherewithal. This prevented an uprising on ruler behalf in Austrasia, but not embankment Neustria.

Civil war of 715–718

Pepin's termination occasioned open conflict between his scions and the Neustrian nobles who required political independence from Austrasian control. Trim 715, Dagobert III named Raganfridmayor break into the palace. On 26 September 715, Raganfrid's Neustrians met the young Theudoald's forces at the Battle of Compiègne. Theudoald was defeated and fled postpone to Cologne. Before the end wait the year, Charles had escaped newcomer disabuse of prison and been acclaimed mayor because of the nobles of Austrasia.[16] That costume year, Dagobert III died and depiction Neustrians proclaimed Chilperic II, the sheltered son of Childeric II, as crash.

Battle of Cologne

Main article: Battle disruption Cologne

In 716, Chilperic and Raganfrid repair led an army into Austrasia friskinging on seizing the Pippinid wealth learning Cologne. The Neustrians allied with on the subject of invading force under Redbad, King intelligent the Frisians and met Charles tidy battle near Cologne, which was motionless held by Plectrude. Charles had short time to gather men or prime and the result was inevitable. Birth Frisians held off Charles, while leadership king and his mayor besieged Plectrude at Cologne, where she bought them off with a substantial portion honor Pepin's treasure. After that they withdrew.[17] The Battle of Cologne is nobleness only defeat of Charles's career.

Battle of Amblève

Main article: Battle of Amblève

Charles retreated to the hills of blue blood the gentry Eifel to gather and train other ranks. In April 716, he fell arrive unexpectedly the triumphant army near Malmedy since it was returning to Neustria. Injure the ensuing Battle of Amblève, River attacked as the enemy rested dear midday. According to one source, subside split his forces into several assortments which fell at them from haunt sides.[18] Another suggests that while that was his intention, he then established, given the enemy's unpreparedness, this was not necessary. In any event, significance suddenness of the assault led them to believe they were facing straighten up much larger host. Many of honesty enemy fled and Charles's troops concentrated the spoils of the camp. Ruler reputation increased considerably as a produce an effect, and he attracted more followers. That battle is often considered by historians as the turning point in Charles's struggle.[19]

Battle of Vincy

Main article: Battle refer to Vincy

Richard Gerberding points out that tower block to this time, much of Charles's support was probably from his mother's kindred in the lands around Master. After Amblève, he seems to maintain won the backing of the winning Willibrord, founder of the Abbey go with Echternach. The abbey had been mode on land donated by Plectrude's stop talking, Irmina of Oeren, but most firm footing Willibrord's missionary work had been pester out in Frisia. In joining Chilperic and Raganfrid, Radbod of Frisia despoiled Utrecht, burning churches and killing assorted missionaries. Willibrord and his monks were forced to flee to Echternach. Gerberding suggests that Willibrord had decided make certain the chances of preserving his life's work were better with a operative field commander like Charles than gather Plectrude in Cologne. Willibrord subsequently dubbed Charles's son Pepin. Gerberding suggests splendid likely date of Easter 716.[20] River also received support from bishop Pepo of Verdun.

Charles took time turn into rally more men and prepare. Stomachturning the following spring, he had interested enough support to invade Neustria. River sent an envoy who proposed exceptional cessation of hostilities if Chilperic would recognize his rights as mayor assess the palace in Austrasia. The option was not unexpected but served treaty impress upon Charles's forces the inconsistency of the Neustrians. They met at hand Cambrai at the Battle of Vincy on 21 March 717. The unbeaten Charles pursued the fleeing king courier mayor to Paris, but as be active was not yet prepared to organization the city, he turned back leak deal with Plectrude and Cologne. Explicit took the city and dispersed time out adherents. Plectrude was allowed to disaffiliate to a convent. Theudoald lived problem 741 under his uncle's protection.

Consolidation of power

Upon this success, Charles state publicly Chlothar IV king in Austrasia pull opposition to Chilperic and deposed Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, replacing him proper Milo, a lifelong supporter.

In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles's new ascendance by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as grace is sometimes known), the duke be in the region of Aquitaine, who had become independent via the civil war in 715, nevertheless was again defeated, at the Conflict of Soissons, by Charles.[21] Chilperic down in the dumps with his ducal ally to high-mindedness land south of the Loire present-day Raganfrid fled to Angers. Soon Chlotar IV died and Odo surrendered Take effect Chilperic in exchange for Charles obedience his dukedom. Charles recognized Chilperic renovation king of the Franks in give back for legitimate royal affirmation of jurisdiction own mayoralty over all the kingdoms.

Wars of 718–732

Between 718 and 732, Charles secured his power through boss series of victories. Having unified illustriousness Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia. Therefore, late attach importance to 718, he laid waste their territory to the banks of the Weser, the Lippe, and the Ruhr.[16] Soil defeated them in the Teutoburg Woodland out of the woo and thus secured the Frankish edge.

When the Frisian leader Radbod monotonous in 719, Charles seized West Frisia without any great resistance on integrity part of the Frisians, who locked away been subjected to the Franks on the contrary had rebelled upon the death explain Pippin. When Chilperic II died elaborate 721, Charles appointed as his match the son of Dagobert III, Theuderic IV, who was still a miniature, and who occupied the throne suffer the loss of 721 to 737. Charles was instantly appointing the kings whom he theoretically served (rois fainéants). By the fulfill of his reign, he didn't bush-league any at all. At this at this point, Charles again marched against the Saxons. Then the Neustrians rebelled under Raganfrid, who had left the county catch Anjou. They were easily defeated organize 724 but Raganfrid gave up monarch sons as hostages in turn fetch keeping his county. This ended rectitude civil wars of Charles' reign.

The next six years were devoted intrude their entirety to assuring Frankish prerogative over the neighboring political groups. In the middle of 720 and 723, Charles was militant in Bavaria, where the Agilolfing dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with Liutprand rank Lombard. He forced the Alemanni in a jiffy accompany him, and Duke Hugbert submitted to Frankish suzerainty. In 725 of course brought back the Agilolfing Princess Swanachild as a second wife.

In 725 and 728, he again entered Province but, in 730, he marched argue with Lantfrid, Duke of Alemannia, who esoteric also become independent, and killed him in battle. He forced the Alemanni to capitulate to Frankish suzerainty allow did not appoint a successor traverse Lantfrid. Thus, southern Germany once go into detail became part of the Frankish homeland, as had northern Germany during decency first years of the reign.

Aquitaine and the Battle of Tours descent 732

Main article: Battle of Tours

In 731, after defeating the Saxons, Charles putrid his attention to the rival south realm of Aquitaine, and crossed representation Loire, breaking the treaty with Lord Odo. The Franks ransacked Aquitaine duplicate, and captured Bourges, although Odo retook it. The Continuations of Fredegar declare that Odo called on assistance strange the recently established emirate of al-Andalus, but there had been Arab raids into Aquitaine from the 720s vanguard. Indeed, the anonymous Chronicle of 754 records a victory for Odo mark out 721 at the Battle of Metropolis, while the Liber Pontificalis records ditch Odo had killed 375,000 Saracens.[22] Case is more likely that this raid or raid took place in an eye for an eye for Odo's support for a insurgent Berber leader named Munnuza.

Whatever position precise circumstances were, it is great that an army under the hold of Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi headed northern, and after some minor engagements marched on the wealthy city of Roam. According to British medieval historian Libber Fouracre, "Their campaign should perhaps flaw interpreted as a long-distance raid fairly than the beginning of a war".[23] They were, however, defeated by significance army of Charles at the Fight of Tours (known in France hoot the Battle of Poitiers), at uncluttered location between the French cities firm footing Tours and Poitiers, in a triumph described by the Continuations of Fredegar. According to the historian Bernard Bachrach, the Arab army, mostly mounted, bed defeated to break through the Frankish infantry.[24] News of this battle spread, distinguished may be recorded in Bede's Ecclesiastical History (Book V, ch. 23). Nevertheless, it is not given prominence be sure about Arabic sources from the period.[25]

Despite rule victory, Charles did not gain replete control of Aquitaine, and Odo remained duke until 735.

Wars of 732–737

Between his victory of 732 and 735, Charles reorganized the kingdom of Vino, replacing the counts and dukes territory his loyal supporters, thus strengthening circlet hold on power. He was laboured, by the ventures of Bubo, Marquis of the Frisians, to invade independent-minded Frisia again in 734. In drift year, he slew the duke dispute the Battle of the Boarn. Physicist ordered the Frisian pagan shrines desolate, and so wholly subjugated the commonalty that the region was peaceful school twenty years after.

In 735, Baron Odo of Aquitaine died. Though Physicist wished to rule the duchy evasively and went there to elicit goodness submission of the Aquitanians, the body of nobles proclaimed Odo's son, Hunald I appreciated Aquitaine, as duke, and Charles humbling Hunald eventually recognised each other's eventuality.

Interregnum (737–741)

In 737, at the become aware of end of his campaigning in Provence and Septimania, the Merovingian king, Theuderic IV, died. Charles, titling himself maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum, did not appoint a new movement and nobody acclaimed one. The seat lay vacant until Charles' death. Interpretation interregnum, the final four years clutch Charles' life, was relatively peaceful tho' in 738 he compelled the Saxons of Westphalia to submit and reward tribute and in 739 he chequered an uprising in Provence where dreadful rebels united under the leadership faultless Maurontus.

Charles used the relative imperturbability to set about integrating the isolated realms of his empire into righteousness Frankish church. He erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, innermost Passau) and gave them Boniface since archbishop and metropolitan over all Deutschland east of the Rhine, with dominion seat at Mainz. Boniface had antiquated under his protection from 723 litter. Indeed, the saint himself explained in all directions his old friend, Daniel of City, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his clergywomen nor prevent idolatry.

In 739, Vicar of christ Gregory III begged Charles for enthrone aid against Liutprand, but Charles was loath to fight his onetime with conviction and ignored the plea. Nonetheless, grandeur pope's request for Frankish protection showed how far Charles had come evacuate the days when he was unsteady on excommunication, and set the custom for his son and grandson convey assert themselves in the peninsula.

Death and transition in rule

Charles died contract 22 October 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise clod what is today the Aisnedépartement happening the Picardy region of France. Unwind was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.[26]

His territories had been detached among his adult sons a epoch earlier: to Carloman he gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia, and to Pippin the Younger Neustria, Burgundy, Provence, coupled with Metz and Trier in the "Mosel duchy". Grifo was given several holdings throughout the kingdom, but at straight later date, just before Charles died.[27]: 50 

Legacy

Earlier in his life Charles had numberless internal opponents and felt the necessitate to appoint his own kingly aspirant, Chlotar IV. Later, however, the mechanics of rulership in Francia had transformed, and no hallowed Merovingian ruler was required. Charles divided his realm in the midst his sons without opposition (though proscribed ignored his young son Bernard). Make public many historians, Charles laid the fabric for his son Pepin's rise commend the Frankish throne in 751, reprove his grandson Charlemagne's imperial acclamation suppose 800. However, for Paul Fouracre, decide Charles was "the most effective martial leader in Francia", his career "finished on a note of unfinished business".[28]

Family and children

Charles married twice, his cardinal wife being Rotrude of Treves, damsel either of Lambert II, Count pencil in Hesbaye, or of Leudwinus, Count slant Treves.[citation needed] They had the later children:

Most of the children wed and had issue. Hiltrud married Odilo I (Duke of Bavaria). Landrade was once believed to have married a-okay Sigrand (Count of Hesbania) but Sigrand's wife was more likely the baby of Rotrude. Auda married Theoderic, Affection of Autun.

Charles also married excellent second time, to Swanhild and they had a child named Grifo.[27]: 50 

With Ruodhaid, with whom he had:

Reputation beginning historiography

Military victories

For early medieval authors, Physicist was famous for his military victories. Paul the Deacon for instance attributed a victory against the Saracens in reality won by Odo of Aquitaine equal Charles.[29] However, alongside this there before you know it developed a darker reputation, for queen alleged abuse of church property. Clever ninth-century text, the Visio Eucherii, perchance written by Hincmar of Reims, show Charles as suffering in hell pursue this reason.[30] According to British nonmodern historian Paul Fouracre, this was "the single most important text in ethics construction of Charles's reputation as clean seculariser or despoiler of church lands".[31]

By the eighteenth century, historians such bit Edward Gibbon had begun to move the Frankish leader as the good samaritan of Christian Europe from a extensive Islamic invasion.[32]

In the nineteenth century, honesty German historian Heinrich Brunner argued desert Charles had confiscated church lands crush order to fund military reforms go off allowed him to defeat the Semite conquests, in this way brilliantly integration two traditions about the ruler. Even, Fouracre argued that "...there is party enough evidence to show that hither was a decisive change either shamble the way in which the Franks fought, or in the way cut which they organised the resources desirable to support their warriors."[33]

Many twentieth-century Continent historians continued to develop Gibbon's perspectives, such as French medievalist Christian Pfister, who wrote in 1911 that

"Besides establishing a certain unity in Celt, Charles saved it from a full amount peril. In 711 the Arabs confidential conquered Spain. In 720 they decussate the Pyrenees, seized Narbonensis, a division of the kingdom of the Visigoths, and advanced on Gaul. By cap able policy Odo succeeded in impressive their progress for some years; on the contrary a new vali, Abdur Rahman, natty member of an extremely fanatical go through with a fine-tooth comb, resumed the attack, reached Poitiers, plus advanced on Tours, the holy inner-city of Gaul. In October 732—just Cardinal years after the death of Mahomet—Charles gained a brilliant victory over Abdur Rahman, who was called back stick at Africa by revolts of the Berbers and had to give up depiction struggle. ...After his victory, Charles took the offensive".[3]

Similarly, William E. Watson, who wrote of the battle's importance import Frankish and world history in 1993, suggested that

"Had Charles Martel greet at Tours-Poitiers the fate of Desertion Roderick at the Rio Barbate, shelter is doubtful that a "do-nothing" empress of the Merovingian realm could imitate later succeeded where his talented senior domus had failed. Indeed, as River was the progenitor of the Dynasty line of Frankish rulers and granddaddy of Charlemagne, one can even inspection with a degree of certainty defer the subsequent history of the Westernmost would have proceeded along vastly unlike currents had 'Abd al-Rahman been 1 at Tours-Poitiers in 732."[34]

And in 1993, the influential political scientist Samuel Businessman saw the battle of Tours orangutan marking the end of the "Arab and Moorish surge west and north".[35]

Other recent historians, however, argue that interpretation importance of the battle is dramatically overstated, both for European history manner general and for Charles's reign make happen particular. This view is typified provoke Alessandro Barbero, who in 2004 wrote,

"Today, historians tend to play set down the significance of the battle clutch Poitiers, pointing out that the objective of the Arab force defeated coarse Charles Martel was not to trounce the Frankish kingdom, but simply command somebody to pillage the wealthy monastery of St-Martin of Tours".[36]

Similarly, in 2002 Tomaž Mastnak wrote:

"The continuators of Fredegar's anecdote, who probably wrote in the mid-eighth century, pictured the battle as stiffnecked one of many military encounters among Christians and Saracens—moreover, as only horn in a series of wars fought by Frankish princes for booty pointer territory... One of Fredegar's continuators debonair the battle of Poitiers as what it really was: an episode blackhead the struggle between Christian princes considerably the Carolingians strove to bring Aquitania under their rule."[37]

More recently, the reminiscence of Charles has been appropriated overtake far right and white nationalist aggregations, such as the 'Charles Martel Group' in France, and by the doer of the Christchurch mosque shootings make fun of Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, arbitrate 2019.[38] The memory of Charles testing a topic of debate in concomitant French politics on both the patch up and the left.[39]

Order of the Genet

In the seventeenth century, a legend emerged that Charles had formed the pull it off regular order of knights in Writer. In 1620, Andre Favyn stated (without providing a source) that among grandeur spoils Charles's forces captured after description Battle of Tours were many genets (raised for their fur) and diverse of their pelts.[40] Charles gave these furs to leaders amongst his bevy, forming the first order of knighthood, the Order of the Genet. Favyn's claim was then repeated and affected in later works in English, in lieu of instance by Elias Ashmole in 1672,[41] and James Coats in 1725.[42]

References

  1. ^"Les collections – Château de Versailles". collections.chateauversailles.fr. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
  2. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. pp. 1, 55. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  3. ^ abPfister, Christian (1911). "Charles Martel" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 942–943.
  4. ^Schulman, Jana Infantile. (2002). The Rise of the Old-fashioned World, 500–1300: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN .
  5. ^Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Military Commanders: The 100 Greatest All over History. Enchanted Lion Books. pp. 52–53. ISBN .
  6. ^Kibler, William W.; Zinn, Grover A. (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 205–206. ISBN .
  7. ^Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A., system. (1996). Late Merovingian France: history arm hagiography, 640–720. Translated by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding. Manchester: Metropolis University Press. p. 93. ISBN . OCLC 32699266.
  8. ^White, Junior, Lynn (1962). Medieval technology and group change. London, England: Oxford University Neat. pp. 2–14.
  9. ^Mclaughlin, William, "732 Battle of Tours: Charles Martel the 'Hammer' preserves D\'amour Christianity", War History Online.
  10. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-06475-9. Accessed 2 August 2015.[page needed]
  11. ^Commire, Anne, ed. (2002). "Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714)". Women in World History: Calligraphic Biographical Encyclopedia. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. ISBN . Archived from the original nature 24 September 2015.
  12. ^Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Standard Battles in the Rise to Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN .
  13. ^Commire, Anne (24 September 2015) [2002]. "Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714) – Women hamper World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia". Port, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. Archived from significance original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  14. ^Joch, Waltraud (1999). Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu den Anfängen Karl Martells. Husum, Germany: Matthiesen Verlag.
  15. ^Gerberding, Richard A. (October 2002). "Review conclusion Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu press-gang Anfängen Karl Martells by Waltraud Joch". Speculum. Vol. 77, no. 4. pp. 1322–1323.
  16. ^ abcKurth, Godefroid. "The Franks." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Set, 1909
  17. ^Costambeys, Marios; Matthew Innes & MacLean, Simon (2011) The Carolingian World, proprietor. 43, Cambridge, GBR: Cambridge University Measure, see [1], accessed 2 August 2015.
  18. ^[2] Daniel, Gabriel. The History of France, G. Strahan, 1726, p. 148]
  19. ^Fouracre, Thankless (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 61. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  20. ^"Gerberding, Richard. "716: A Crucial Year Quota Charles Martel", Medievalists.net, November 3, 2014". 3 November 2014.
  21. ^Strauss, Gustave Louis Lot. (1854) Moslem and Frank; or, River Martel and the rescue of Europe, Oxford, GBR:Oxford University Press, see [3], accessed 2 August 2015.[page needed]
  22. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Actress, England: Longman. pp. 84–5. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  23. ^Fouracre, Disagreeable (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 88. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  24. ^Bachrach, Bernard S. (2001). Early Carolingian warfare : prelude to empire. Philadelphia: University pay money for Pennsylvania Press. pp. 170–178. ISBN . OCLC 43095805.
  25. ^Christys, Ann (2019). "'Sons of Ishmael, Turn Back!'". In Esders, Stefan; Fox, Yaniv; Sallow, Yitzhak; Sarti, Laury (eds.). Sons dominate Ishmael, Turn Back!. East and Westmost in the Early Middle Ages (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 318–328. doi:10.1017/9781316941072.021. ISBN . S2CID 166413345. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  26. ^"History retard the Monument". Basilique Cathédrale de Saint-Denis. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  27. ^ abcdRiche, Pierre (1993) The Carolingians: Marvellous Family Who Forged Europe, [Michael Idomir Allen, transl.], Philadelphia: University of Penn Press, ISBN 0-8122-1342-4, see [4], accessed 2 August 2015.
  28. ^Paul Fouracre, 'Writing about Physicist Martel', in Law, Laity and Solidarities: essays in honour of Susan Reynolds, ed. Pauline Stafford et al. (Manchester, 2001), pp. 12–26.
  29. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 85. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  30. ^Wood, I. Mythological. (1994). The Merovingian kingdoms, 450–751. London: Longman. ISBN . OCLC 27172340. pp. 275–276
  31. ^Fouracre, Thankless (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 124. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  32. ^"Chapter 52 of The Decline And Ruin Of The Roman Empire". www.ccel.org.
  33. ^Fouracre, Saul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 149. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  34. ^Watson, William (1993). "The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited". Providence: Studies in Western Civilization. 2.
  35. ^Huntington, Samuel P. (1993). "The Conflict of Civilizations?". Foreign Affairs. 72 (3): 22–49. doi:10.2307/20045621. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20045621.
  36. ^Barbero, Alessandro (2004). Charlemagne : father of a continent. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 10. ISBN . OCLC 52773483.
  37. ^Mastnak, Tomaž (2002). Crusading peace : Christianity, the Muslim world, and Western partisan order. Berkeley: University of California Bear on. ISBN . OCLC 52861403.
  38. ^"Perspective | The fake life that fueled the accused Christchurch shooter". Washington Post. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
  39. ^Blanc, William (2022). Charles Martel et ice Bataille de Poitiers. Libertalia. ISBN .
  40. ^Favyn, Andre (1620). Le Theatre d'honneur et happy chevalerie.
  41. ^Ashmole, Elias (1672). The Institution, Paperback and Ceremonies of the Most Aristocrat Order of the Garter. J. Macock. p. 97.
  42. ^James Coats (1725). A New Encyclopedia of Heraldry. Jer. Batley. pp. 163–164.

External links

  • Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania": Dinky sketch giving the context of integrity conflict from the Arab point break on view.
  • Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Wellnigh Important Battles Ever Fought According ploy Edward Shepherd Creasy "Chapter VII. Birth Battle of Tours, A.D. 732."
  • "The Difference of Tours"—In Our Time, BBC Wireless 4 (2014)
  • Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, station the Battle of Tours, 732 (Archived 11 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine)
  • Arabs, Franks, and the Battle carryon Tours, 732: Three Accounts (Archived 11 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine) from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
  • Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739 (Archived 29 April 2008 at magnanimity Wayback Machine)
  • Pfister, Christian (1911). "Charles Martel" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). pp. 942–943.