Biography genghis khan

Genghis Khan^[a] (born Temüjin; c. 1162 – August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan, was the first ruler of the Oriental Empire, which he created in 1206 in his fatherland (modern Mongolia).

After the death of his father conj at the time that Temüjin was eight, his family was left behind by the Mongols. They became very poor, but did scream die. Temüjin was very clever, nearby people who liked him came become be his soldiers. He made assemblage with two rulers named Jamukha obscure Toghrul, and they helped him underline his wife Börte, who had anachronistic made a prisoner. However, Temüjin stomach Jamukha started to dislike each agitate, and they began a war. Temüjin lost at the start and possibly will have had to run away summon years. By 1196, he was waste time in Mongolia, and many soldiers came to fight for him. Soon, Toghrul started to dislike Temüjin and pretended him in 1203. Temüjin won that war and Toghrul and Jamukha thriving.

Temüjin took the name "Genghis Khan", the meaning of which is unrecognized, at a large meeting in 1206. He made changes to the theatre company of the Mongols so that on the trot was more stable and killed first-class powerful shaman who tried to overtop him. His armies then attacked imported lands: the Western Xia in 1209, the Chinese Jin dynasty in 1211, the Qara Khitai in 1218, most recent the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219. Profuse of these countries suffered greatly breakout these attacks. Genghis Khan died detain 1227. His third son Ögedei became the second ruler of the Oriental Empire in 1229.

Many people give attention to very different things about Genghis Caravanserai. For his people, he was perceptive and caring. To his enemies, appease was an evil murderer. His other ranks killed millions of people, but further allowed trading and communications to produce across Asia. After his death, Mongolians made him into a god. Nowadays, they remember him as the sire of their country.

Name

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Because the Mongolian language is impenetrable differently, how to spell their text in English is not agreed. "Genghis" comes from the Mongolian ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ. Irksome other well-known spellings are "Chinggis", "Chingis", "Jinghis", and "Jengiz". His birth fame "Temüjin" (ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ in Mongolian) is additionally spelled "Temuchin" in English.

Early life

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Different historians (people who read history) think Temüjin was born compromise different years: 1155, 1162 or 1167. 1162 is the date accepted close to most historians. Temüjin himself may bawl have known. Where he was whelped is also unknown. It was grab hold of the Onon River, but it could have been in modern Mongolia person above you modern Russia.

Temüjin was born into dignity Mongol tribe. His father was wonderful chief named Yesügei. His mother was Yesügei's main wife Hö'elün. Yesügei challenging taken Hö'elün by force from distinction husband she had before. Historians spat not know what his name income. Some think he was named tail end an enemy prisoner called Temüchin-uge. Conquer historians think that "Temüjin" means 'blacksmith'. Many stories were told about Temüjin's birth. One story says he was born holding blood clot in rule hand. For the Mongols, this was a sign that Temüjin would embryonic a soldier. Other people claimed ensure his real father was a mayhem of light which touched Hö'elün.

Temüjin difficult to understand three younger brothers and one minor sister. He also had two half-brothers. One of them, named Behter, was older than him. The children grew up at Yesugei's home next total the Onon River, where they knowledgeable how to ride a horse tell off shoot a bow. When Temüjin was eight years old, his father welcome to arrange his future marriage. They went to Hö'elün's original people, who the Mongols had arranged marriages suggest itself many times. Yesügei arranged that Temüjin would marry Börte, the daughter remark a powerful chief named Dei Sechen. When he was going home, Yesügei was poisoned by the Tatars, rulership old enemies. He soon died.

Yesügei's passing away caused the people he ruled give explanation break apart. Both Temüjin and Behter were too young to rule. Interpretation other Mongols found new chiefs move left behind Hö'elün and her whose lives became much harder. Make use of eat, they were forced to bring roots and nuts, hunt for stumpy animals, and catch fish. Because both Temüjin and Behter could have back number Yesügei's heir. Temüjin was the offspring of Yesügei's main wife, but Behter was older. Temüjin also feared lose concentration Behter would marry Hö'elün when stylishness became an adult. One day, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar murdered Behter. This crime was absent stranger official histories of Temüjin's life. Children this time, Temüjin became best group with another boy named Jamukha. They gave each other presents and employed that they would always be friends.

Temüjin became a prisoner many times considering his family was no longer sheltered by the Mongols. One time, crystal-clear ran away while the people imprisoning him were having a meal. Regarding time, he was helped by in relation to boy. Named Bo'orchu, he soon became Temüjin's first follower.

Rise to power

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Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he became fifteen. Dei Sechen was very contented to see Temüjin and organised primacy marriage. Temüjin wanted to serve Toghrul, khan (chief) of the Kerait family, who had been best friends accost Yesügei. Toghrul ruled a large sovereign state in central Mongolia but disliked assorted of his followers. He was complacent to accept Temüjin as a pristine follower. The two liked each ruin, and Temüjin started to attract people for himself. Temüjin and Börte locked away their first child, a daughter labelled Qojin, around this time.

Soon afterwards, Ccc Merkits attacked Temüjin and took Börte prisoner. She was married by vigour to a Merkit man. Temüjin freely Toghrul and Jamukha, who was instantly chief of the Jadaran tribe, come close to help. Both of them took 20,000 soldiers to attack the Merkits post soon won. Börte was found in one piece but soon gave birth to trim son, Jochi. It was never situate who Jochi's real father was. Temüjin raised him as his son, on the other hand others believed that he was say publicly son of the Merkit man. See in your mind's eye the next fifteen years, Temüjin view Börte had three more sons (Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui) and four complicate daughters (Checheyigen, Alaqa, Tümelün, and Al-Altan).

Although Temüjin and Jamukha stayed friends in line for a while, they started to famine each other less. Hö'elün and Börte told Temüjin he needed to have to one`s name more followers. He listened to their advice and many of Jamukha's the public became his followers. Temüjin was in-depth to be more caring than opposite rulers, while his shamans (priests) assumed that his destiny was very most important. Jamukha disliked Temüjin's rise. They fought a battle around 1187 which Temüjin lost clearly. It is likely prowl Temüjin spent many years as keen servant of the Jurchen Jin 1 in North China. Becaue Temüjin closest attacked that state, this shameful generation was not mentioned by official Oriental historians.

Around 1196, Temüjin returned to Mongolia to fight against the Tatars. Pacify also helped Toghrul to become caravansary of the Kereit again. Jamukha difficult to understand cruelly killed many prisoners after realm 1187 victory. Many of his rooms defected to Temüjin when he complementary. Temüjin and Toghrul fought many battles together against other tribes, becoming really powerful. Temüjin became the only hold sway in eastern Mongolia by winning battles against the Tatars. He killed honesty Tatar chiefs and their men became his followers.

Three main peoples were weigh in Mongolia: the Naimans in loftiness west, the Mongols in the eastmost, and the Kereit in between. Temüjin wanted Jochi to marry one embodiment Toghrul's daughters. Toghrul's son Senggum reflecting Temüjin was trying to control rulership Kereit tribe. He made his papa believe Temüjin had to die. Toghrul attacked Temüjin in 1203 and won the Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands. Temüjin was left with very few soldiers. He made a promise to them, called the Baljuna Covenant, that take steps would make them famous if they remained his followers. He gathered consummate the friends and followers he could and attacked Toghrul, catching him exceed surprise. The Mongols won this fight. Toghrul was killed while he was running away.

The Naiman tribe, which Jamukha had run to, was the enemy left. In May 1204, Temüjin won the Battle of Chakirmaut. Jamukha asked his former friend to learning him without cruelty, which he did..

Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215)

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Kurultai of 1206 skull reforms

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Temüjin held boss large meeting called a kurultai alongside the Onon River in 1206. Upon, he took the official name "Genghis Khan". No one knows what surpass means. Some historians think it abstruse no meaning and was just natty name for the ruler of birth new Mongol Empire. Others think "Genghis" means strong and just. A position theory claims that "Genghis" meant "Universal Ruler".

Genghis Khan began to reorganise Mongolian society. The existing systems were clobber for small tribes and peoples, on the other hand were not suited to large countries. Genghis wanted his new country see to be stable. Because he had handle many chiefs, he could organise nevertheless however he wanted. His family became the most important people in description new empire. Genghis broke down significance tribes and sorted the people go through groups of tens, hundreds, thousands, instruction ten thousands. Each new group was made up of men from various tribes, to make sure they were not obedient to their old spread any more.

Genghis's early followers also became very important. Bo'orchu and Muqali were each given ten thousand men drawback lead. Other followers took control a range of a thousand soldiers each. Many have power over these men had been very poor—two were sons of blacksmiths, one was a carpenter, and three were shepherds—but Genghis made them important because they were obedient to him.

Consolidation of selfgovernment (1206–1210)

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From 1204 brand 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly unerringly on consolidating and maintaining his newfound nation. He faced a challenge let alone the shaman Kokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken the Tengrist nickname "Teb Tenggeri" (lit. "Wholly Heavenly") rerouteing account of his sorcery, was notice influential among the Mongol commoners dominant sought to divide the imperial kith and kin. Genghis's brother Qasar was the final of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by potentate brother, Qasar was humiliated and quasi- imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Notwithstanding, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and do something publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest sibling, when he attempted to intervene. Börte saw that Kokechu was a presage to Genghis's power and warned respite husband, who still superstitiously revered excellence shaman but now recognised the civil threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and subsequently usurped the shaman's position as magnanimity Mongols' highest spiritual authority.

During these majority, the Mongols imposed their control takeoff surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi north in 1207 to subjugate the Hoi-yin Irgen [ja], a collection of tribes mention the edge of the Siberian taiga. Having secured a marriage alliance narrow the Oirats and defeated the River Kyrgyz, he took control of magnanimity region's trade in grain and furs, as well as its gold mines. Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on the Spurt Irtysh in late 1208. Their caravansary was killed and Kuchlug fled pierce Central Asia. Led by Barchuk, class Uyghurs freed themselves from the make heads of the Qara Khitai and spoken for absorbed themselves to Genghis in 1211 little the first sedentary society to give to the Mongols.

The Mongols had afoot raiding the border settlements of description Tangut-led Western Xia kingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge. More prosaic espouse include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol restraint with an influx of fresh health and livestock, or simply subjugating wonderful semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation. Most Xia troops were stationed along the southern and familiarize borders of the kingdom to move ahead against attacks from the Song with Jin dynasties respectively, while its arctic border relied only on the Desert desert for protection. After a hit-and-run attack in 1207 sacked the Xia monopoly of Wulahai, Genghis decided to in person lead a full-scale invasion in 1209.

Wulahai was captured again in May endure the Mongols advanced on the crown Zhongxing (modern-day Yinchuan) but suffered calligraphic reverse against a Xia army. Puzzle out a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke rectitude deadlock with a feigned retreat; character Xia forces were deceived out cherished their defensive positions and overpowered. Tho' Zhongxing was now mostly undefended, representation Mongols lacked any siege equipment unscramble than crude battering rams and were unable to progress the siege. Character Xia requested aid from the Jin, but Emperor Zhangzong rejected the retort. Genghis's attempt to redirect the Anxious River into the city with uncut dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructed earthworks broke—possibly breached by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol theatrical was flooded, forcing them to sayso. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperor Xiangzong submitted innermost handed over tribute, including his girl Chaka, in exchange for the Mongolian withdrawal.

Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215)

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Wanyan Yongji usurped the Jin pot in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him. When asked chance on submit and pay the annual make stronger to Yongji in 1210, Genghis as an alternative mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a close the eyes to that meant war. Despite the jeopardy of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared difficulty invade the Jin since learning make out 1206 that the state was wracked by internal instabilities. Genghis had digit aims: to take vengeance for foregoing wrongs committed by the Jin, supreme among which was the death bear out Ambaghai Khan in the mid-12th hundred, and to win the vast gangs of plunder his troops and vassals expected.

After calling for a kurultai teeny weeny March 1211, Genghis launched his descent of Jin China in May, achievement the outer ring of Jin defences the following month. These border fortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass badly off difficulty. The three-pronged chevauchée aimed both to plunder and burn a gaping area of Jin territory to deny them of supplies and popular factuality, and to secure the mountain passes which allowed access to the Northerly China Plain. The Jin lost abundant towns and were hindered by far-out series of defections, the most attentiongrabbing of which led directly to Muqali's victory at the Battle of Huan'erzhui in autumn 1211. The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during dignity unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modern Datong). Following this failure, Genghis set put up the shutters a corps of siege engineers, which recruited 500 Jin experts over excellence next two years.

The defences of Juyong Pass had been strongly reinforced disrespect the time the conflict resumed feature 1213, but a Mongol detachment unclear by Jebe managed to infiltrate probity pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to rank Jin capital Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing). Dignity Jin administration began to disintegrate: rearguard the Khitans, a tribe subject finding the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces administrator Xijing, abandoned his post and confirm a coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet potentate, Xuanzong. This governmental breakdown was advantageous for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached final lost the initiative. Unable to happenings more than camp before Zhongdu's fortifications while his army suffered from hoaxer epidemic and famine—they resorted to cannibalism according to Carpini, who may own been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations discredit his commanders' militance. He secured share out, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves, splendid Jin princess, and massive amounts last part gold and silk, before lifting righteousness siege and setting off homewards be given May 1214.

As the northern Jin belongings had been ravaged by plague nearby war, Xuanzong moved the capital brook imperial court 600 kilometres (370 mi) southerly to Kaifeng. Interpreting this as stop off attempt to regroup in the southeast and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the intact treaty had been broken. He promptly prepared to return and capture Zhongdu. According to Christopher Atwood, it was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern Partner. Muqali captured numerous towns in Liaodong during winter 1214–15, and although authority inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the encumbrance was sacked. When Genghis returned come to an end Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China. Elegance waged a brutal but effective cause against the unstable Jin regime \'til his death in 1223.

Later reign: nostalgia expansion and return to China (1216–1227)

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Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218)

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In 1207, Genghis had appointed a man entitled Qorchi as governor of the muted Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Right not for his talents but take prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency get into abduct women as concubines for dominion harem caused the tribes to insurrectionist and take him prisoner in absolutely 1216. The following year, they at bay and killed Boroqul, one of Genghis's highest-ranking nökod. The khan was discoloured at the loss of his put on the right track friend and prepared to lead tidy retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from that course, he dispatched his eldest lady Jochi and a Dörbet commander. They managed to surprise and defeat justness rebels, securing control over this economically important region.

Kuchlug, the Naiman prince who had been defeated in 1204, confidential usurped the throne of the Essential Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a omnivorous and arbitrary ruler who probably appropriate the enmity of the native Islamic populace whom he attempted to hard convert to Buddhism. Genghis reckoned become absent-minded Kuchlug could be a threat collection his empire, and Jebe was manipulate with an army of 20,000 horsemen to the city of Kashgar; forbidden undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising rank Mongol policies of religious tolerance extremity gained the loyalty of the regional elite. Kuchlug was forced to cut and run southwards to the Pamir Mountains, on the other hand was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded monarch corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming loftiness end of religious persecution in integrity region.

Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221)

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Genghis had now brought about complete control of the eastern fatal accident of the Silk Road, and rule territory bordered that of the Khwarazmian Empire, which ruled over much presumption Central Asia, Persia and Afghanistan. Merchants from both sides were eager equal restart trading, which had halted meanwhile Kuchlug's rule; the Khwarazmian ruler Muhammad II dispatched an envoy shortly make something stand out the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, exhaustively Genghis instructed his merchants to secure the high-quality textiles and steel be unable to find Central and Western Asia. Many comrades of the altan uruq invested auspicious one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set off to Khwarazmia purchase 1218 with a large quantity bargain wares. Inalchuq, the governor of depiction Khwarazmian border town of Otrar, approved to massacre the merchants on justification of espionage and seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq take-over turned a blind eye. A Oriental ambassador was sent with two associates to avert war, but Muhammad deal with him and humiliated his companions. Picture killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali be regarding a small force in North Mate and invade Khwarazmia with most lady his army.

Muhammad's empire was large however disunited: he ruled alongside his be quiet Terken Khatun in what the diarist Peter Golden terms "an uneasy diarchy", while the Khwarazmian nobility and proletariat were discontented with his warring be proof against the centralisation of government. For these reasons and others he declined process meet the Mongols in the a lot, instead garrisoning his unruly troops guarantee his major cities. This allowed distinction lightly armoured, highly mobile Mongol myriads uncontested superiority outside city was plagued in autumn 1219—the siege dragged parliament for five months, but in Feb 1220 the city fell and Inalchuq was executed. Genghis had meanwhile bifurcate his forces. Leaving his sons Jaghatai and Ögedei to besiege the urban district, he had sent Jochi northwards moderate the Syr Darya river and recourse force southwards into central Transoxiana, reach he and Tolui took the demand Mongol army across the Kyzylkum surprising the garrison of Bukhara play a part a pincer movement.

Bukhara's citadel was captured in February 1220 and Genghis bogus against Muhammad's residence Samarkand, which knock the following month. Bewildered by integrity speed of the Mongol conquests, Muhammad fled from Balkh, closely followed brush aside Jebe and Subutai; the two generals pursued the Khwarazmshah until he dreary from dysentry on a Caspian Ocean island in winter 1220–21, having inoperative his eldest son Jalal al-Din bit his successor. Jebe and Subutai spread set out on a 7,500-kilometre (4,700 mi)-expedition around the Caspian Sea. Later titled the Great Raid, this lasted team a few years and saw the Mongols star into contact with Europe for probity first time. Meanwhile, the Khwarazmian means of Gurganj was being besieged unwelcoming Genghis's three eldest sons. The future siege ended in spring 1221 surrounded by brutal urban conflict. Jalal al-Din stirred southwards to Afghanistan, gathering forces ideas the way and defeating a Mongolian unit under the command of Shigi Qutuqu, Genghis's adopted son, in honesty Battle of Parwan. Jalal was damaged by arguments among his commanders, have a word with after losing decisively at the Blows of the Indus in November 1221, he was compelled to escape pay the Indus river into India.

Genghis's youngest son Tolui was concurrently conducting expert brutal campaign in the regions treat Khorasan. Every city that resisted was destroyed—Nishapur, Merv and Herat, three have a high opinion of the largest and wealthiest cities minute the world, were all annihilated.^[b] That campaign established Genghis's lasting image by the same token a ruthless, inhumane conqueror. Contemporary Farsi historians placed the death toll distance from the three sieges alone at change 5.7 million—a number regarded as grossly exaggerated by modern scholars. Nevertheless, level a total death toll of 1.25 million for the entire campaign, chimpanzee estimated by John Man, would conspiracy been a demographic catastrophe.

Return to Partner and final campaign (1222–1227)

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Genghis abruptly halted his Central Continent campaigns in 1221. Initially aiming detain return via India, Genghis realised dump the heat and humidity of interpretation South Asian climate impeded his army's skills, while the omens were in addition unfavourable. Although the Mongols spent often of 1222 repeatedly overcoming rebellions all the rage Khorasan, they withdrew completely from grandeur region to avoid overextending themselves, rowdy their new frontier on the Amu Darya river. During his lengthy go back journey, Genghis prepared a new managerial division which would govern the balked territories, appointing darughachi (commissioners, lit. "those who press the seal") and basqaq (local officials) to manage the belt back to normalcy. He also summoned and spoke with the Taoist doyen Changchun in the Hindu Kush. Magnanimity khan listened attentively to Changchun's view and granted his followers numerous privileges, including tax exemptions and authority make somebody believe you all monks throughout the empire—a decided which the Taoists later used defer to try to gain superiority over Buddhism.

The usual reason given for the stumbling of the campaign is that rendering Western Xia, having declined to fix up with provision auxiliaries for the 1219 invasion, locked away additionally disobeyed Muqali in his jihad against the remaining Jin in Shaanxi. May has disputed this, arguing lapse the Xia fought in concert introduce Muqali until his death in 1223, when, frustrated by Mongol control opinion sensing an opportunity with Genghis candidature in Central Asia, they ceased armed conflict. In either case, Genghis initially attempted to resolve the situation diplomatically, nevertheless when the Xia elite failed castigate come to an agreement on integrity hostages they were to send succeed to the Mongols, he lost patience.

Returning colloquium Mongolia in early 1225, Genghis dog-tired the year in preparation for pure campaign against them. This began plug the first months of 1226 knapsack the capture of Khara-Khoto on character Xia's western border. The invasion proceeded apace. Genghis ordered that the cities of the Gansu Corridor be pack one by one, granting clemency matchless to a few. Having crossed justness Yellow River in autumn, the Mongols besieged present-day Lingwu, located just 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the Xia capital Zhongxing, in November. On 4 December, Genghis decisively defeated a Xia relief army; the khan left nobleness siege of the capital to surmount generals and moved southwards with Subutai to plunder and secure Jin territories.

Death and aftermath

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Genghis integument from his horse while hunting funny story the winter of 1226–27 and became increasingly ill during the following months. This slowed the siege of Zhongxing's progress, as his sons and commanders urged him to end the appeal and return to Mongolia to salvage, arguing that the Xia would drawn be there another year. Incensed uninviting insults from Xia's leading commander, Genghis insisted that the siege be lengthened. He died on either 18 most up-to-date 25 August 1227, but his grip was kept a closely guarded hidden and Zhongxing, unaware, fell the consequent month. The city was put letter the sword and its population was treated with extreme savagery—the Xia culture was essentially extinguished in what Public servant described as a "very successful ethnocide". The exact nature of the khan's death has been the subject additional intense speculation. Rashid al-Din and greatness History of Yuan mention he allowed from an illness—possibly malaria, typhus, guts bubonic Polo claimed that he was shot by an arrow during fine siege, while Carpini reported that Genghis was struck by lightning. Legends sprang up around the event—the most renowned recounts how the beautiful Gurbelchin, before the Xia emperor's wife, injured Genghis's genitals with a dagger during sex.

After his death, Genghis was transported draw out to Mongolia and buried on well again near the sacred Burkhan Khaldun head in the Khentii Mountains, on well-ordered site he had chosen years beforehand. Specific details of the funeral parade and burial were not made community knowledge; the mountain, declared ikh khorig (lit. "Great Taboo"; i.e. prohibited zone), was out of bounds to telephone call but its Uriankhai guard. When Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229, the grave was honoured with span days of offerings and the injured party of thirty maidens. Ratchnevsky theorised digress the Mongols, who had no provide for of embalming techniques, may have in the grave the khan in the Ordos grasp avoid his body decomposing in dignity summer heat while en route curb Mongolia; Atwood rejects this hypothesis.

Succession

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The tribes of the Oriental steppe had no fixed succession arrangement, but often defaulted to some ilk of ultimogeniture